1. Discuss the implications of the various theories and perspectives related to sociology of education. (2hrs)
2. Why is it important for the teacher to understand the various elements that form the school social system? (2hrs)
3. Describe the importance of understanding bureaucracy in the school organization. (2hrs)
4. Suggest ways to deal with conflicts and stress in the school organization. (2hrs)
5. How can collaboration be initiated between the school and society? (2hrs)
REFERENCES
Amir Hasan Dawi. (1999). Penteorian Sosiologi dan Pendidikan. Tanjong Malim : Quantum Books.
Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Bass and Stogdills. (1990). Hand Book of Leadership, Theory, Research and Managerial
Applications.The Free Press,Collier Macmillan Publishers, London.
Lippa, R.A. (1990). Introduction to Social Psychology. Belmont, California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Macionis, J.J. (1991). Sociology. 3rd Edition. Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Marimuthu, T. (1990). Pengenalan Sosiologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur : Penerbit Fajar Bakti
Meighan, R & Siraj-Blatchford, I.1998. A Sociology of Educating. London: Cassell Popene, D. 2000. Sociology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall
Sharifah Md. Nor. (2000). Keberkesanan Sekolah. Satu Perspektif Sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur : Penerbit UPM
http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ (16th February 2005)
http://www.partnership.html/ ( 16th February 2005)
http://www. Principal-PTA survey.htm ( 16th February 2005)
http://www.vge child involvement.htm ( 16th February 2005)
http://www.standardsite partnership with parents.htm ( 16th February 2005)
http://www.stress.about.com/cs/workplacestress
Wednesday, November 7, 2007
Topic 5 School and Community
5.0 Introduction
Students’ success in education to an extent depends on the involvement of the community. When community forms partnership and support the learning climate in school, students are more likely to view their schooling in positive light and be more receptive to learning. This bond of cooperation between school and community will definitely foster/promote healthy learning climate amongst students leading to the realization of goals of education in Malaysia.
5.1 Concept of School and Community
A school refers to a place where children get education while a community is a group of people who live in a particular area, country or a group of people who share the same religion, culture and live within a limited territory Is there is a difference between a community and society ? Please reflect. Try to remember what are the basic concepts of Sociology that you have learned in Topic 1
5.2 Relationship between school and community
Schools are an agent of socialization. The first major agent outside the family involved in socializing children has historically been the school. Through formal schooling, children are taught both the skills and attitudes they need in society and the heritage of their culture.
The social roles children learn at school are oriented more towards the wider society than are those that they learn at home. The teacher tells them what is expected of them as students, as members of their community and as citizens of their nation. In addition, for the first time the child is evaluated in a systematic way in comparison with others. The teacher may comment informally on the behaviour of students, praising and criticizing them.
Socialization at school emphasizes conformity to impersonal rules and authority, an adjustment basic to successful functioning in modern societies. At home, children learn to obey their parents and recognise them as authority figures. At school, children learn to obey the rules.
Hence, the community plays a major role in influencing the schools on issues relating to socializing the future generation. Therefore it is of utmost important for the community and schools to build a positive interdependence in order to achieve the desirable end products.
An effective partnerships and cooperation between schools and community can improve
students’ achievement in school, contribute to students’ success in life and nurture the development of healthy schools, families and communities.
Reflect on your past experiences, list down the organizations/ members of communities that have contributed to your schools. Just compare the list you have written with the list below. If they are similar, you have done a good job. Communities that can contribute to schools are:
§ Parents – through PTA
§ Non Governmental Organizations
§ Government Agencies
§ Corporate sectors
§ Business sectors
§ Educational bodies
Parents and schools should foster an effective partnership in order to promote positive effects on students’ learning. Active participation from parents will enhance the well being of the students and will also support the learning climate in schools.
Parents-Teachers Association ( PTA ) is one of the channels where parents can play an active and supportive role to encourage schools to achieve their goals. Reflect on your experience. Try to give examples of each of the above organizations. What form of contributions have the above organizations contributed towards your school and schooling?
List them down in a form of table. Stop and reflect. What do you think is the role of PTA in schools?.
5.3 The function/ purpose of Parents-Teachers Association:
§ To develop a close relationship between home and school.
§ To facilitate communication among members of the school and parents.
§ To strengthen communication between school, community and public.
§ To generate funds in support of student curricular activities for the school budget.
§ To organize and provide volunteer opportunities to reinforce the value of education.
§ To participate in school decisions regarding the development of schools and students’ achievement.
§ To coordinate resources and services from the community to the school and students.
Reflect your school days. Generally, how would you evaluate the relationship between the PTA and your school? How did they cooperate in the development of the school? Activities involving the community / parents to enhance cooperation and collaboration between schools are:
§ Community members / parents are invited to class or assemblies to speak.
§ Dialogue as to share ideas and information between the school and the community.
§ Students interview the community members / parents.
§ Students participate in the good-will programmes to carry out community service.
§ Students being guided by their parents in their school work.
§ Schools organize projects involving parents / community members
§ Cooperation with educational organizations such as museums, libraries and cultural groups to provide out of school opportunities for informal teaching and learning.
§ Tutoring and providing academic guidance in specific school subjects by community-based volunteers.
§ After-school programmes that provide remedial or enrichment learning activities that maximize the use of school resources and fulfilling parents’ need for childcare.
Stop and reflect.
During your school days, have you ever participated in activities involving the community? In your opinion have these activities helped you in anyway? In the light of your experiences list down the activities of non-governmental organizations, government agencies or educational organizations that have contributed to your school. In your opinion, which of these bodies have contributed the most towards schools in Malaysia?
We have come to the end of the unit. Hope you have gained a insight knowledge of school and the community. There is one more activity given below which you should try. Enjoy your task Based on your reading and experience, why do you think it is important to foster collaboration and partnership between schools and community in the present situation?
5.4 Summary
• Community should take responsibility in the development of education.
• Promoting cooperation and fostering partnership between community and schools will enrich and enhance students educational experiences.
• Members of community who might be able to contribute and collaborate with schools are namely, the NGO, Government agencies Corporate sectors, Business sectors, Parents etc.
• Support from the community through activities/programs and resources will benefit students in their development.
• It is vital to realize the importance of collaboration and partnership among schools and community members.
• The active participation and encouragement from the community will boost the idea of “Caring Society” mooted by the government.
Basic Reading Text
Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. 5th Edition.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Students’ success in education to an extent depends on the involvement of the community. When community forms partnership and support the learning climate in school, students are more likely to view their schooling in positive light and be more receptive to learning. This bond of cooperation between school and community will definitely foster/promote healthy learning climate amongst students leading to the realization of goals of education in Malaysia.
5.1 Concept of School and Community
A school refers to a place where children get education while a community is a group of people who live in a particular area, country or a group of people who share the same religion, culture and live within a limited territory Is there is a difference between a community and society ? Please reflect. Try to remember what are the basic concepts of Sociology that you have learned in Topic 1
5.2 Relationship between school and community
Schools are an agent of socialization. The first major agent outside the family involved in socializing children has historically been the school. Through formal schooling, children are taught both the skills and attitudes they need in society and the heritage of their culture.
The social roles children learn at school are oriented more towards the wider society than are those that they learn at home. The teacher tells them what is expected of them as students, as members of their community and as citizens of their nation. In addition, for the first time the child is evaluated in a systematic way in comparison with others. The teacher may comment informally on the behaviour of students, praising and criticizing them.
Socialization at school emphasizes conformity to impersonal rules and authority, an adjustment basic to successful functioning in modern societies. At home, children learn to obey their parents and recognise them as authority figures. At school, children learn to obey the rules.
Hence, the community plays a major role in influencing the schools on issues relating to socializing the future generation. Therefore it is of utmost important for the community and schools to build a positive interdependence in order to achieve the desirable end products.
An effective partnerships and cooperation between schools and community can improve
students’ achievement in school, contribute to students’ success in life and nurture the development of healthy schools, families and communities.
Reflect on your past experiences, list down the organizations/ members of communities that have contributed to your schools. Just compare the list you have written with the list below. If they are similar, you have done a good job. Communities that can contribute to schools are:
§ Parents – through PTA
§ Non Governmental Organizations
§ Government Agencies
§ Corporate sectors
§ Business sectors
§ Educational bodies
Parents and schools should foster an effective partnership in order to promote positive effects on students’ learning. Active participation from parents will enhance the well being of the students and will also support the learning climate in schools.
Parents-Teachers Association ( PTA ) is one of the channels where parents can play an active and supportive role to encourage schools to achieve their goals. Reflect on your experience. Try to give examples of each of the above organizations. What form of contributions have the above organizations contributed towards your school and schooling?
List them down in a form of table. Stop and reflect. What do you think is the role of PTA in schools?.
5.3 The function/ purpose of Parents-Teachers Association:
§ To develop a close relationship between home and school.
§ To facilitate communication among members of the school and parents.
§ To strengthen communication between school, community and public.
§ To generate funds in support of student curricular activities for the school budget.
§ To organize and provide volunteer opportunities to reinforce the value of education.
§ To participate in school decisions regarding the development of schools and students’ achievement.
§ To coordinate resources and services from the community to the school and students.
Reflect your school days. Generally, how would you evaluate the relationship between the PTA and your school? How did they cooperate in the development of the school? Activities involving the community / parents to enhance cooperation and collaboration between schools are:
§ Community members / parents are invited to class or assemblies to speak.
§ Dialogue as to share ideas and information between the school and the community.
§ Students interview the community members / parents.
§ Students participate in the good-will programmes to carry out community service.
§ Students being guided by their parents in their school work.
§ Schools organize projects involving parents / community members
§ Cooperation with educational organizations such as museums, libraries and cultural groups to provide out of school opportunities for informal teaching and learning.
§ Tutoring and providing academic guidance in specific school subjects by community-based volunteers.
§ After-school programmes that provide remedial or enrichment learning activities that maximize the use of school resources and fulfilling parents’ need for childcare.
Stop and reflect.
During your school days, have you ever participated in activities involving the community? In your opinion have these activities helped you in anyway? In the light of your experiences list down the activities of non-governmental organizations, government agencies or educational organizations that have contributed to your school. In your opinion, which of these bodies have contributed the most towards schools in Malaysia?
We have come to the end of the unit. Hope you have gained a insight knowledge of school and the community. There is one more activity given below which you should try. Enjoy your task Based on your reading and experience, why do you think it is important to foster collaboration and partnership between schools and community in the present situation?
5.4 Summary
• Community should take responsibility in the development of education.
• Promoting cooperation and fostering partnership between community and schools will enrich and enhance students educational experiences.
• Members of community who might be able to contribute and collaborate with schools are namely, the NGO, Government agencies Corporate sectors, Business sectors, Parents etc.
• Support from the community through activities/programs and resources will benefit students in their development.
• It is vital to realize the importance of collaboration and partnership among schools and community members.
• The active participation and encouragement from the community will boost the idea of “Caring Society” mooted by the government.
Basic Reading Text
Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. 5th Edition.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Topic 4 Management And Discipline in Schools
4.1 School Climate and Classroom Management
The leadership style of a principal will reflect the nature of the school climate. A good school climate is a school with good administration, nice to look at and with orderly and systematic organisation. This condition will eventually enhance the effectiveness of the teaching and learning among the students of that particular school.
A good school climate contains the following characteristics:
1. Relationship of mutual respect between academic staff with their pupils.
2. Pupils voluntarily accept the school aspirations and rules which have been planned and arranged by the school authority.
3. The feeling of togetherness between students and teachers
4. Creation of favourable condition whereby every student involves in knowledge searching activity.
5. Creation of a clean, orderly and peaceful atmosphere in the school environment.
6. Creation of good discipline culture with zero defects.
4.2 Conflict and Stress in the School
Take some time to ponder over this question, “What do you mean by stress and conflict? Have you got an idea of its meaning? Stress refers to pressure or worry resulting from mental or physical distress while conflict refers to “be in opposition or disagreement with someone” It is perceived incompatible objectives between two or more people or groups occurs in every social systems.
In school, the successful management of stress and conflict depends upon the awareness of problems and potential solutions, the degree of interdependence among the parties and the existence of predictable procedures for handling problems. Pause for a moment . Reflect your school climate, Compare with the above characteristics.
It is in classrooms and informal school activities that students can develop understandings of stress and conflict; skills in recognizing and nurturing healthy relationships with people like and unlike themselves. Now let us see how conflict and stress occurred in the school context. Stress and conflict often appears due to various reasons between headmasters or administrators , teachers and students.
Some of the various situations which lead to stress and conflict at school level are :
• autocratic style of the Headmasters
• personality conflicts between teachers
• threatening pressure from the headmaster/administrator
• lack of teaching resources
• Discipline problems of students
• passive school interactions among the staff.
• low academic achievement of students
• Indifferent attitude of teachers towards the welfare of students
• lack of co-operation and collaboration among the teachers.
• the pupils involvement in co-curricular activities are minimal.
How would you compare your school with the above situations? Can you name 5 discipline issues that occurs in the school.
4.3 Importance of Administrative leadership in management of school discipline
Some of the few issues that are prevalent in schools are stealing, vandalism, fighting, drug abuse and truancy. How can the school administrative leadership play a role in managing the issues stated. The school principal plays an important leadership role in establishing school discipline, both by effective administration and by personal example. Principals of well-disciplined students are usually highly visible models. They engaged by walking around , greeting students and teachers as well as monitoring possible problem areas.
Good communication and shared values are important elements in this relationship. Ideally, a principal should be able to create consensus among staff on rules and their enforcement. It has been found that stable and supportive administrative leadership was the overriding factor determining whether a discipline program was effective.
As a teacher how would you handle these disciplinary problems in your school?
1. Implement the lesson plan in a systematic, interesting and meaningful ways.
2. Diversify teaching- learning activities and use suitable teaching ways.
3. Respect students and treat them well to foster close relationship.
4. Value and reinforce student’s good behaviour or who have shown good performance and results.
5. Be fair and firm when giving punishment.
6. Practise democratic leadership style.
7. Avoid the use of threat or physical punishment.
8. Give proper guidance and counselling service
9. Instil good values and sustain the students’ good behaviour through positive reinforcement.
10. Listen to students’ who have personal or academic problems.
l 1. Do not make hasty decisions. rationalise situations and make good decisions.
12. Always consult the other teachers especially the Guidance and Counselling teacher before making decisions.
4.4. Success and failures in teaching and learning
Effective learning of students generally depends on the teacher. The teacher as an effective manager refers to teacher whose classroom is orderly, had a minimum of student misbehaviour and had high levels of time-on-task, and ineffective manager is one whose classroom lacked these qualities. A teacher plays an important role in the teaching and learning process of students. The effectiveness of teaching and learning activities depends, to a large extent, on the students’ ability to understand the teacher’s message .The teacher should present his lesson in a simple way so that it could be easily understood by the students.
An effective teaching and learning to take place among the students a teacher has to:
1. Plan his lesson.
2. Manage group activities efficiently.
3. Practice pupil- centred strategy.
4. Use appropriate teaching methods, such as discussion, narration, Socratic method and inquiry- discovery approach.
5. Use suitable teaching aids to present lessons.
6. Use effective questioning technique.
7. Evaluate the students at the end of the lesson.
8. Reflect and evaluate your teaching and try to improve the lesson further.
Effective managers were found to be much more skilled at preventing disruptions from occurring in the first place. Effective managers engaged in specified behaviours to keep students focused on learning and to reduce the likelihood of classroom disruption. These included :
• “Withitness” – the teacher communicating to the children by his/her behaviour that he/she knows what the students are doing and what is going on in the classroom
• Overlapping – attending to different events simultaneously, without being totally diverted by a disruption or other activity
• Smoothness and momentum in lessons- conducting smooth and brisk pacing and providing continuous activity signals or cues
• Group alerting – attempting to involve non reciting children in recitation tasks and keeping all students “alerted” to the task at hand
• Stimulating seatwork – providing students seatwork activities that have variety and offer challenge.
4.5 Summary:
This topic discusses on the management and the discipline in schools. The role of the administrative leader in upholding and managing school discipline and the different ways of curbing discipline in schools by the school teachers in the teaching and learning process. The key points are:
• School discipline is to ensure the safety of staff and students as well as create an environment conducive to learning
• Effective school discipline strategies seek to encourage responsible behaviour and to provide all students with a satisfying school experience as well as to discourage misconduct.
• School principal plays an important leadership role in establishing school discipline, both by effective administration and by personal example.
• Effective teaching and learning approaches can help to manage classroom discipline
Basic Reading Text:
Cotton,K. 2001. School wide and Classroom Discipline. Retrieved from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/5/cu9.html
Topic 3 School as a Bureaucracy
Have you ever come across situations that annoyed you due to ‘red tape’ in public administration. When you need attention and help from certain public sector, you were passed to various officers to get things done. Do you know why this happens? In this topic, we will try to explore the concept and elements of bureaucracy authority and the application of Weber’s model of bureaucracy and its implications on school as a bureaucratic organisation.
3.1 School as a Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a rational, efficient way of completing tasks and rewarding individuals based on their contributions. However, it can also represent an impersonal, inefficient, cumbersome organization unresponsive to human needs, as you may have experienced.
By dividing organizations into formal and informal parts, we can understand better the working bureaucracy and the way it relates to school. Although we may complain, bureaucracy serves a vital function in our society. Any system based on other than selection and promotion based on merit will create unfairness and discrimination.
A note of caution is necessary in discussing schools as bureaucracies, because schools are unique organizations. Schools are distinctive because they are expected to transmit values, ideals, and shared knowledge; as well as to foster individual’s cognitive and emotional growth as a wholesome person. Organizationally, schools are divided into classrooms, the day into periods, and students into groups by grades and performance in examinations.
3.2 Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The bureaucratic form of organization was introduced in Europe because it was believed to be the most efficient and rational form for organizations with goals of high productivity and efficiency.
Max Weber, (1947) discussed the elements that make up a bureaucratic organization. Study the table below to understand the elements or characteristics of bureaucracy:
Try to analyse the elements of bureaucracy at school level. Relate to your observation and experiences at school to understand the bureaucracy at school. Elaborate by giving examples
3.3 Problems in Educational Bureaucracies
When we attempt to place some people in right categories to maximize efficiency in an organisation, there will be some who do not fit into the categories. Another problem of bureaucracy is that its own structure may lead to school to experience difficulties. Here are the expected problems:
• Huge enrolments with test scores, rather than in-depth knowledge of students’ family, background ,problems ,motivation, and other personal characteristics, the major criteria for screening and placement of students which determines their future
• Because relationships are expected to be impersonal, students, particularly the disadvantaged, are unable to get the counselling support, or the exposure to positive role models and the need to develop a positive self-image.
• Official rules tend to overcome the behaviour of school personnel and are difficult to circumvent when problems arise
• Teachers and students often feel powerless to change school conditions and so become apathetic as regards to solving problems
• Teachers as administrators can develop bureaucratic personalities, thus becoming insecure, as overly protective of their jobs, narrowly specialized less concerned with teaching, and inflexible in their daily routine.
For students who conform to bureaucratic expectations, life in school is most rewarding. For many, bureaucracy is confusing and difficult to understand. Their negative feelings towards bureaucracy become obvious as the system gets larger. They are caught up in the rules and regulations and being treated as numbers. A teacher teaching thirty or more students with an average of six periods per day, is likely not to recognize an individual students' problem or allocate time and energy to deal with it.
Various solutions to overcome the impersonal bureaucracy have been proposed; such as decentralization of decision making, curricular change, personalizing instruction and having students to get involved in community settings.
In what way, do you think, that a bureaucratic model is useful to schools? And in what ways the model will not be functional. Take your school as an example.
That’s all for now. I hope that you have had a better understanding of the bureaucracy its implication in school setting. We shall proceed to the next topic in a moment.
3.4 Summary
This topic deal with the school and its role in the bureaucratic organization. The concepts and elements of bureaucracy have been discussed. Here are some of the main ideas put forth :
• Bureaucracy is a rational and efficient way of completing tasks and rewarding individuals based on their contributions.
• The main elements of a bureaucratic organization comprise of division of labour, administrative hierarchy, specific rules of procedure , formalized and effective neutral role relationships, rationality of total organization and positions held by individuals in the organization.
• In any bureaucratic organization like the school, there will be expected problems, for example huge enrolment, lack of autonomy among teachers and bureaucratic personalities.
Basic Reading Text:
Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
3.1 School as a Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a rational, efficient way of completing tasks and rewarding individuals based on their contributions. However, it can also represent an impersonal, inefficient, cumbersome organization unresponsive to human needs, as you may have experienced.
By dividing organizations into formal and informal parts, we can understand better the working bureaucracy and the way it relates to school. Although we may complain, bureaucracy serves a vital function in our society. Any system based on other than selection and promotion based on merit will create unfairness and discrimination.
A note of caution is necessary in discussing schools as bureaucracies, because schools are unique organizations. Schools are distinctive because they are expected to transmit values, ideals, and shared knowledge; as well as to foster individual’s cognitive and emotional growth as a wholesome person. Organizationally, schools are divided into classrooms, the day into periods, and students into groups by grades and performance in examinations.
3.2 Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The bureaucratic form of organization was introduced in Europe because it was believed to be the most efficient and rational form for organizations with goals of high productivity and efficiency.
Max Weber, (1947) discussed the elements that make up a bureaucratic organization. Study the table below to understand the elements or characteristics of bureaucracy:
Try to analyse the elements of bureaucracy at school level. Relate to your observation and experiences at school to understand the bureaucracy at school. Elaborate by giving examples
3.3 Problems in Educational Bureaucracies
When we attempt to place some people in right categories to maximize efficiency in an organisation, there will be some who do not fit into the categories. Another problem of bureaucracy is that its own structure may lead to school to experience difficulties. Here are the expected problems:
• Huge enrolments with test scores, rather than in-depth knowledge of students’ family, background ,problems ,motivation, and other personal characteristics, the major criteria for screening and placement of students which determines their future
• Because relationships are expected to be impersonal, students, particularly the disadvantaged, are unable to get the counselling support, or the exposure to positive role models and the need to develop a positive self-image.
• Official rules tend to overcome the behaviour of school personnel and are difficult to circumvent when problems arise
• Teachers and students often feel powerless to change school conditions and so become apathetic as regards to solving problems
• Teachers as administrators can develop bureaucratic personalities, thus becoming insecure, as overly protective of their jobs, narrowly specialized less concerned with teaching, and inflexible in their daily routine.
For students who conform to bureaucratic expectations, life in school is most rewarding. For many, bureaucracy is confusing and difficult to understand. Their negative feelings towards bureaucracy become obvious as the system gets larger. They are caught up in the rules and regulations and being treated as numbers. A teacher teaching thirty or more students with an average of six periods per day, is likely not to recognize an individual students' problem or allocate time and energy to deal with it.
Various solutions to overcome the impersonal bureaucracy have been proposed; such as decentralization of decision making, curricular change, personalizing instruction and having students to get involved in community settings.
In what way, do you think, that a bureaucratic model is useful to schools? And in what ways the model will not be functional. Take your school as an example.
That’s all for now. I hope that you have had a better understanding of the bureaucracy its implication in school setting. We shall proceed to the next topic in a moment.
3.4 Summary
This topic deal with the school and its role in the bureaucratic organization. The concepts and elements of bureaucracy have been discussed. Here are some of the main ideas put forth :
• Bureaucracy is a rational and efficient way of completing tasks and rewarding individuals based on their contributions.
• The main elements of a bureaucratic organization comprise of division of labour, administrative hierarchy, specific rules of procedure , formalized and effective neutral role relationships, rationality of total organization and positions held by individuals in the organization.
• In any bureaucratic organization like the school, there will be expected problems, for example huge enrolment, lack of autonomy among teachers and bureaucratic personalities.
Basic Reading Text:
Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Topic 2 School as A Social System
2.0 Social System
Sit back for a moment and recall the above theories. Now try to relate the theories to its application in society. According to the functionalists, everybody contributes towards the well-being of the society. Everyone, no matter what he or she is, has a role to play.
Conflict theorists on the other hand, believe that there will be conflicts within the society while the inter-actionists look at social relationship as the result of social interaction. Whatever their beliefs, it is clear that there is a social system in every society. Can you explain what is a social system?
According to Oxford Advanced Dictionary, "social" means ‘ concerning the organization of and relation between people and communities the way it is organized’ and ‘system" is ‘an organized set of ideas or theories or a particular way of doing something’ or ‘a group of things, pieces of equipment etc that are connected or work together’. In other words, a system is simply a set of objects together with relationships among objects and their attributes. With this perspective comes the realization that fully as significant as the attributes of the parts is the nature of the relationships that binds the parts together into a functioning whole.
Therefore, a social system can be explained as ‘an interconnected and organized activities which consist of parts that are inter-depend to produce common results’. Social systems are created by human beings and are strengthened by man’s attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, habits and expectations. Social system has two main goals, namely, actualization of goals and sustenance of goals. In a social system two or more people are constantly interacting and probably practise similar approaches, attitudes and social values.
Take some time to ponder over the following questions
„h Is school a social system?
„h What are the characteristics of the school as a social system?
„h What are the elements that make school a social system?
„h Can one social system stand independently?
„h Is there any social relationship within and outside a social system?
2.1 School as a Social System
According to the functionalist approach, the school system is composed of many distinct sub-systems or parts, each with their own goals. Together these parts make up a functioning whole (Ballantine 2001: p 132). Each part is dependent on the other for smooth operation. If one part does not function well, the other parts are affected too. Willard Waller stated five reasons for a school to be regarded as a social system:
„h It has personnel who contributes toward the school’s goals.
„h It has a social structure as the result of social interaction within the school.
„h It is represented and bound by strong social relationship.
„h It is bound by a feeling of belonging ( esprit de corps).
„h It possesses its own culture / ways of doing things.
Thus, we can say that a school is a social system with a clear border that separates it from the environment. Nonetheless, it is not a closed social system. It has a close relationship with the environment and they compliment each other. School prepares students with living skills, knowledge and expertise necessary for the society. The school is provided with resources, building and personnel (students and teachers) in order for it function.
As a social system, a school has a formal and informal structure. The formal structure refers to the role and function of the administration. The informal system relates to its social relationship that helps the organisation to function.
Next, as you read the below, visualize a school environment which you are familiar with.
1. As you enter the school, you are directed to the office. Here, a member of the school staff greets you and ascertains your business. Hence, the office and its staff act as buffers to protect the rest of its members from interruptions in their routine.
2. Classrooms take up most of the physical structure of the school. Within a classroom, the teacher and students are the main occupants. However, the order of the classroom ( seating arrangement, work groups, location, style of leadership, class size and the types of students) affects the relationships between position holders and the consequent roles they play. This in-turn affect the activities that take place within the classroom. Each classroom has a distinct climate and social structure.
3. Support services are necessary for classroom to function; standard services include food, health services, janitorial, counselling, and library. The school system exists in a larger societal context including the local community, the regional settings, state and federal government’s rules and regulations and funding. Therefore, a school system is where people, building, classrooms, textbooks, and equipment become what it is through interaction with the environment. (Ballantine 2001 p 133)
In the next section, we will consider the elements that form a social system in school. We need to look at Getzels-Guba’s Model to further understand the relationship between role and personality that produce social behaviour.
Try to understand what Getzels says about social interaction within an organisation to understand social behaviour.
According Getzels, social system model is best suited for studying a school organization, because of its emphasis on process in synthesizing the society with its culture, values, socioeconomics, political systems with the need of the individuals (students, teachers and parents).
A given act is conceived as deriving simultaneously from the normative and personal dimensions, and performance in a social system as a function of the interaction between role and personality. That is to say, a social act may be understood as resulting from the individual's attempts to cope with an environment composed of patterns of expectations for his behavior in ways consistent with his own patterns of needs and dispositions.
2.2 The Getzels-Guba Model
Before we go any further, try to recall or imagine the teachers whom you were in favour of, teachers whom you cheated. What were their personalities and actions that make you like or dislike them? What sort of school climate or classroom environment did they create?
Try to understand what Getzels says about social interaction within an organisation to understand social behaviour.
According Getzels, social system model is best suited for studying a school organization, because of its emphasis on process in synthesizing the society with its culture, values, socioeconomics, political systems with the need of the individuals (students, teachers and parents).
A given act is conceived as deriving simultaneously from the normative and personal dimensions, and performance in a social system as a function of the interaction between role and personality. That is to say, a social act may be understood as resulting from the individual's attempts to cope with an environment composed of patterns of expectations for his behavior in ways consistent with his own patterns of needs and dispositions.
The Getzels-Guba model shown below in figure 1., postulates interactions at parallel levels between individuals and institutions
Sit back for a moment and recall the above theories. Now try to relate the theories to its application in society. According to the functionalists, everybody contributes towards the well-being of the society. Everyone, no matter what he or she is, has a role to play.
Conflict theorists on the other hand, believe that there will be conflicts within the society while the inter-actionists look at social relationship as the result of social interaction. Whatever their beliefs, it is clear that there is a social system in every society. Can you explain what is a social system?
According to Oxford Advanced Dictionary, "social" means ‘ concerning the organization of and relation between people and communities the way it is organized’ and ‘system" is ‘an organized set of ideas or theories or a particular way of doing something’ or ‘a group of things, pieces of equipment etc that are connected or work together’. In other words, a system is simply a set of objects together with relationships among objects and their attributes. With this perspective comes the realization that fully as significant as the attributes of the parts is the nature of the relationships that binds the parts together into a functioning whole.
Therefore, a social system can be explained as ‘an interconnected and organized activities which consist of parts that are inter-depend to produce common results’. Social systems are created by human beings and are strengthened by man’s attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, habits and expectations. Social system has two main goals, namely, actualization of goals and sustenance of goals. In a social system two or more people are constantly interacting and probably practise similar approaches, attitudes and social values.
Take some time to ponder over the following questions
„h Is school a social system?
„h What are the characteristics of the school as a social system?
„h What are the elements that make school a social system?
„h Can one social system stand independently?
„h Is there any social relationship within and outside a social system?
2.1 School as a Social System
According to the functionalist approach, the school system is composed of many distinct sub-systems or parts, each with their own goals. Together these parts make up a functioning whole (Ballantine 2001: p 132). Each part is dependent on the other for smooth operation. If one part does not function well, the other parts are affected too. Willard Waller stated five reasons for a school to be regarded as a social system:
„h It has personnel who contributes toward the school’s goals.
„h It has a social structure as the result of social interaction within the school.
„h It is represented and bound by strong social relationship.
„h It is bound by a feeling of belonging ( esprit de corps).
„h It possesses its own culture / ways of doing things.
Thus, we can say that a school is a social system with a clear border that separates it from the environment. Nonetheless, it is not a closed social system. It has a close relationship with the environment and they compliment each other. School prepares students with living skills, knowledge and expertise necessary for the society. The school is provided with resources, building and personnel (students and teachers) in order for it function.
As a social system, a school has a formal and informal structure. The formal structure refers to the role and function of the administration. The informal system relates to its social relationship that helps the organisation to function.
Next, as you read the below, visualize a school environment which you are familiar with.
1. As you enter the school, you are directed to the office. Here, a member of the school staff greets you and ascertains your business. Hence, the office and its staff act as buffers to protect the rest of its members from interruptions in their routine.
2. Classrooms take up most of the physical structure of the school. Within a classroom, the teacher and students are the main occupants. However, the order of the classroom ( seating arrangement, work groups, location, style of leadership, class size and the types of students) affects the relationships between position holders and the consequent roles they play. This in-turn affect the activities that take place within the classroom. Each classroom has a distinct climate and social structure.
3. Support services are necessary for classroom to function; standard services include food, health services, janitorial, counselling, and library. The school system exists in a larger societal context including the local community, the regional settings, state and federal government’s rules and regulations and funding. Therefore, a school system is where people, building, classrooms, textbooks, and equipment become what it is through interaction with the environment. (Ballantine 2001 p 133)
In the next section, we will consider the elements that form a social system in school. We need to look at Getzels-Guba’s Model to further understand the relationship between role and personality that produce social behaviour.
Try to understand what Getzels says about social interaction within an organisation to understand social behaviour.
According Getzels, social system model is best suited for studying a school organization, because of its emphasis on process in synthesizing the society with its culture, values, socioeconomics, political systems with the need of the individuals (students, teachers and parents).
A given act is conceived as deriving simultaneously from the normative and personal dimensions, and performance in a social system as a function of the interaction between role and personality. That is to say, a social act may be understood as resulting from the individual's attempts to cope with an environment composed of patterns of expectations for his behavior in ways consistent with his own patterns of needs and dispositions.
2.2 The Getzels-Guba Model
Before we go any further, try to recall or imagine the teachers whom you were in favour of, teachers whom you cheated. What were their personalities and actions that make you like or dislike them? What sort of school climate or classroom environment did they create?
Try to understand what Getzels says about social interaction within an organisation to understand social behaviour.
According Getzels, social system model is best suited for studying a school organization, because of its emphasis on process in synthesizing the society with its culture, values, socioeconomics, political systems with the need of the individuals (students, teachers and parents).
A given act is conceived as deriving simultaneously from the normative and personal dimensions, and performance in a social system as a function of the interaction between role and personality. That is to say, a social act may be understood as resulting from the individual's attempts to cope with an environment composed of patterns of expectations for his behavior in ways consistent with his own patterns of needs and dispositions.
The Getzels-Guba model shown below in figure 1., postulates interactions at parallel levels between individuals and institutions
Getzels explains that the social systems involve two classes of phenomena which are at once conceptually independent and phenomenally interactive: :
1. the institutions, with certain roles and expectations, that will fulfill the goals of the system; and
2. the individuals, with certain personalities and dispositions inhabiting the system, whose observed interactions comprise what we call social behavior.
We shall assert that this behavior may be understood as a function of these major elements:
institution, role, and expectation, .. and individual, personality and need disposition.
Getzels asserts that behavior, B, is a function of the interaction of role and personality
"Behavior is a function of Personality" is to be understood as " Specific and unique behavior-types are determined by various, i.e. not necessarily unique, personality-types."
The Getzels-Guba model also says the following --if we interpret the arrows to be function graphs --
a. Behavior is a function of Need-disposition and Expectation, which are functions of each other;
b. Expectation is a function of Role which is a function of Institution which is a function of Social System;
c. Need-Disposition is a function of Personality which is a function of Individual which is a function of Social System;
d. Personality and Role are functions of each other;
e. Individual and Institution are functions of each other.
Getzels however, characterizes "Role" as "the most important analytic unit of the institution." Institutions exist. "with certain roles and expectation" and individuals exist "with certain personalities and dispositions". Their observed interactions comprise what we call social behavior.
Getzels appears to conceive Institution and Individual, to be the variables and Social Behavior to be their resultant.
What then make up a school social system? It is the interaction of personality of individuals and the roles they play vis-à-vis their position held within the school.
Every school member: students, teachers, school heads, and support staff play their important roles towards achieving the school goals. How the teacher manages his/her classroom, he/she interacts with the students and the environment, carries himself/herself depends on his/her personality and the role or position held.
Besides, the activities related to the school are influenced by society’s culture, policies,values and are undertaken by individuals as part of a social process. So the success of the individual and the organization are based on factors like expectations, needs, satisfaction, role, behavior and goals.
As for the role of individuals within the school, the school has certain roles and expectations that are designed to fulfill the goals of the system. Each school consists of individuals with certain personalities and need- dispositions, whose interaction make up what is commonly known as social behavior.
2.3 Conflicts within school social system
With reference to the various roles you have listed above, try to relate them to the school functions and goals. We can now look into the goals and functions of the school as well as their resultant conflicts.
Goals of The School System
Formal goals serve several purposes of the school system. They provide guidelines for activities of the system and focus the activities of members. They imply social acceptance of the stated purposes and the means to achieve them. Thus it legitimizes the activities in the system.
But, there is not always a consensus on what goals to receive the highest priority and on how to achieve them. There will always be controversies over them. Take for example the school curriculum. Some adults are concerned that schools are not putting enough emphasis on the basic skills and that there are too many ‘frills’(e.g. art, music). Others argue that children need exposure to a broad curriculum.
Schools also are under pressure from the community members to take over greater roles especially in child-care programs.
Therefore goals are constantly being ‘negotiated’ and reconsidered depending on the interests of the powerful and the needs of the system.
(a) Societal and Community Goals
Each society has certain goals for its educational system that are put into practice in schools and classrooms. National education programs determine uniform curriculum and materials but heterogeneous societies have competing goals. School systems are often at the centre of political struggles for control of resources and ideas.
(b) School Goals
Schools are guided by a broad and formal goal statement, namely the National Education Philosophy. Nonetheless the stated goals are often different from the operational procedures. These procedures focus on curricular content, classroom style and organizational structure to accomplish the stated goals. It is in the school that the stated goals must be translated into action. In the process, conflicts over purpose and interpretation can arise.
(c) Individual Goals
Members of the organization holding different roles are likely to have different goals. For instance, teachers and administrators desire high-quality education but they also have personal motivation. For students, school is obligatory. They are required to attend. Their goals vary depending on individual motivations. Parent’s goals are sometimes in conflict with school policies too.
Important school functions are to socialize the young to perform needed adult roles and develop skills needed to live in society. Schools formalize socialization experiences, facilitate peer interaction, help meet family goals for successful children and prepare students for the job market.
Schools bring age peers together in classroom and for other school-related activities. This results in friendship groups or cliques to develop. Thus group sub-culture flourish which in turn influence the school. Sense of belonging of peer groups with their own special values may contradict with school academic programmes
As students develop and learn about the intersecting social systems of which they are a part, conflict is all around them. They develop understandings about interpersonal and social conflict, about procedures for handling it.
School plays an important part in helping diverse individuals to see themselves as citizens and therefore to internalize skills, norms and roles for managing personal and social conflict.
Among the conflicts that exist in schools are classroom conflicts, peer conflicts, which can be resolved through peer conflict resolution programmes, conflict management and school governance and conflict education infused directly into academic lessons where students analyze and respond to the conflicts in lessons.
2.4 Summary:
This topic has explained the school as a social system and the roles played by the school and the individuals in the school system. It also discussed the conflicts that occurred in the school system. Below are some of the key points:
• A school as a social system has its roles and functions of administration while the system has a network of social interaction and relationship for it to function.
• The Getzel-Guba model emphasizes on the process of interaction of individuals and the roles each individual play in the school system
• In the functioning of a school, conflicts arises. They are mostly classroom conflicts and peer conflicts.
• Ways of resolving conflicts are peer conflict resolution program, conflict management and conflict in education.
Basic Reading Text:
Getzels, J.W. & Guba,E.G.(1957). Social Behavior and the administrative process.
School Review,65: 423-441.
References
http://www.neiu.edu/~aserafin/421/theory2/orgtheory2/sld006.htm
http://education.uncc.edu/wkwhite/_8110_threaded/0000004a.htm
Tuesday, November 6, 2007
Topic 1 Basic concepts of Sociology and Sociology of Education
1.0 Concept of Sociology
Have you ever heard the term sociology? Is sociology similar to psychology? Can you differentiate between the two terms? Let us consider these two situations:
Situation 1 - “My daughter Alice who is 10 months old is now able to walk. She is also able to ask for things that she wants”
Situation 2- “I do not like to go out and play with Ahmad. He never allows me to borrow his books but I like Jenny because she buys me candies whenever she goes to the shop”
Now can you see the difference between these two situations? Can you explain the difference? Can you now tell us which of the two situations do you think refers to the concept of sociology?
Sociology is a study of people in group situations. In other words, it is the study of society and social interactions, of how human beings as social beings think and act.
Other definitions of sociology are:
1. Sociology is the systematic and objective study of human society and social interaction.
2. a systemic study of the relationship between people and the social setting in which they live.
3. a study of social life, social change and social causes and consequences of human behaviour.
4. a study of what goes on between people, whether as individuals, groups, or entire society.
According to Ottoway ( 1964 ), sociology is defined as a separate discipline of social science, is the study of society, but not the whole of that society……where the central concern of sociological study is the social relationships of mankind.
Discipline of sociology enables us to look beyond our limited view of the world to society as a whole- the values and ideas shared by its members, the groups and the forces that change it.
Now that you have already understood the term sociology, try to explain what is meant by Sociology of Education? .
Let us now proceed to explain sociology of education. It is a discipline of applied social science that uses sociological knowledge in educational research. In other words, Sociology of Education is the knowledge of education from the social perspective. Since you have fully understood both the concepts of Sociology and Sociology of Education, let us move on!!!
a. Theories of Sociology of Education
In an effort to understand how society works, different sociologists start with different assumptions about the basic character of human social life. There are some who see order and stability as more important than conflict and change; while others take the opposite view. Some view the larger institutional structures of society while others focus on human interaction in small groups. Thus, sociologists have theoretical perspectives which will help them select the questions that they will ask about social life and the methods they use to seek answers to these questions.
Ponder over these few questions:
Why do things happen the way they are in society?
What determines the way we perceive an individual or groups?
What leads to conflict and competition among students?
What leads individuals to be attracted to others?
These are some of the questions that deal with interaction in social situations. How do we explain these kinds of social phenomenon. Sociologists apply theoretical approaches to acquire knowledge and explain social interactions and its implications in schools and classrooms.
Do you know that there are three types of theoretical approaches , namely
1. Functionalist Theory
2. Conflict Theory
3. Interactionist Theory
Now, visit your nearest library and find out more on these three theoretical approaches. What have you gathered on these approaches? Can you differentiate the three approaches? Read on and compare your readings with the information provided below. Now, let us read on to find out more about these three theories of sociology.
1.1.1 Functionalist Theory ( Emile Durkheim )
This theory is based on the assumption that a society is a complex system which works together to promote stability. It emphasizes the way in which each part of a society contributes to the whole so as to maintain stability.
According to this approach:
§ Society and institutions in society (such as education) are interdependent.
§ Society is much like the human body. Like parts of body, the parts of society work together in a systematic way that is usually good for the whole. Each part helps to maintain the state of balance that is needed forthe system to operate smoothly.
§ Society is represented by six major units/institutions namely, family, religion, education, politics, economics and health.
§ Every unit must work and contribute to the functioning of the whole society.
§ Every unit plays a role in the total system and are dependent on each other for survival.
Analogy :
Heart and brain are essential for human being to live. An education system is necessary for the survival of a society.
The important aspects of this theory are:
§ It consists of functions and structures – which contribute to the stability of society.
§ Integration – between all units and institutions in the society.
§ Maintain the stability in society.
§ Encourages changes to promote progress in society.
§ Importance of formal and non formal education in the socialization process of educating children; to uphold values and norms of the society (education as means of socialization ).
Now, please make jottings of what you understand by the Functionalist theory and what are the strengths and weaknesses in this theory.
As for the functionalist perspective, the school serves very similar functions and the five main social functions of education have been identified as (a) socialization, (b) social control, (c) selection and allocation, (d) assimilation of newcomers and (e) social innovation and change.
Socialization function of education is the transmission of knowledge and technical skills. School expected to teach children such values as democracy, the rule of the law and even the desirability of monogamous marriage. Normative socialization (teaching of norms and values) is also implicit in much that a child reads and is allowed to do.
Social control is where school expected to persuade their students that it is necessary to behave according to these principles. Students are graded not only on how well they learn but also on how well they cooperate, how orderly they are and also even on personal grooming. Social control functions of education extends well beyond socialization. School serves as custodial institutions for the nation’s young, keeping children off the streets.
Selection and allocation of people to enter particular occupational positions rests with the schools. Assimilation is the absorption of newcomers into the dominant society. Assimilation functions in schools is geared towards including the poor and disadvantaged in the main stream of society, whether or not they are recent immigrants.
Education contributes to change by spreading and producing new knowledge, values and beliefs. Besides new knowledge, education organization also produce and disseminated new values and beliefs that can be potent generators of social change.
You should be able to understand the sociological perspective on education based on the functionalist theory.
1.1.2 Conflict Theory (Max, Weber )
This theory is based on the assumption that society is a complex system characterized by inequality and conflicts that generate social change.
According to this theory, there are 3 important elements:
- conflict
- change
- force
The conflict theory emphasizes on the struggle over limited resources, power and prestige as a permanent aspect of societies and a major source of social change. Based on the assumption that the parts of sociology, far from being smoothly functioning units of a whole, actually are in conflict with one another. Among the characteristics of the theory:
§ Existence of tension and conflict in society and its parts created by the competing interest of individuals and groups.
§ Constant state of tension results in struggle that finally cause change in society.
§ Change is inevitable.
Existence of different social class in society results in constant conflict amongst the different social groups. Each tries to champion it’s own cause. The most powerful group will try to force it’s values on others. This conflict of interest will lead to changes in society.
Can you describe how this theory is applied in education?
According to this theory, the functions of education are :
§ Stratification tool for the capitalist society.
§ Social control.
School is a training ground for workers in terms of attitude, technical skills, intellectual abilities etc. So who do you think students are trained for the lower hierarchy job in the industrial sector?
According to this theory, students with low academic achievement are chosen for lower hierarchy jobs. These students normally are from the low income group (“the have-nots”).
Children from rich families (“the haves”) have access to many privileges (example: access to the best education) normally score high academic grades. They are the ones who secure the better jobs.
Conflict theorists see education principally as a tool by the ruling classes to perpetuate social inequality, both by controlling access to schooling and by training docile, disciplined workers.
Two important ways by which these goals are promoted are tracking and credentialism. Tracking is dividing students into different groups or classes on the basis of academic ability. Process of selection starts as soon as a child enters school. Purpose of tracking programs is to allow each student to learn at his or her own pace and thereby avoid boredom on the part of the first learners and frustration among the lower track students. Credentialism put forth by the conflict theorists contended that the more degrees granted , the less bearing they have on people’s ability to do a job.
Can you relate the idea of this theory in our present education system? Does our present education system serves as a means of stratification tool and social control?
Now that you have now understood the two different theoretical approaches to Sociology, let us compare and contrast them with the third theory. Make jottings as you read along.
What are the significant similarities and differences?
1.1.3 Interactionist Theory
This theory is based on the assumption that society is involved in interaction by which individuals actively construct reality in everyday life. The major characteristics of the theory are:
§ Focuses on how people interact in their everyday lives and how they make sense of this interaction.
§ Focuses on individuals’ interaction with one another.
§ Interactionist is concerned with the nature of daily interaction on the society and how this interaction is perceived by people
§ They study individuals and small groups rather than large scale social structures. They observe human behaviour at such close range, interactionists tend to see people as having more freedom of actions –more freedom from the constraints of society.
§ The important principles of this theory are:
- individual’s interaction ( through shared symbols & meanings ) enable him to think.
- individual’s action and interaction develop into groups and societies.
- every individual will influence the other.
§ Individuals with similar culture and background will define and interpret social situations in similar ways because of their similar socialization, experiences and expectations. Their behaviour is guided by common norms.
§ However, differences do exists due to individual experiences, social class and economic status
Consider this situation:
A teacher walking past a classroom may generate a positive feeling to some students and nervousness and anxiety in others. These reactions happen because we tend to respond to others according to the different labels we attach.
Now, let’s ponder for a while. How do Educational Sociologist explain the students’ achievement using this theory?
In education, this theory focuses on the common, ordinary interactions between members in a school such as among peer groups, teachers and students, teachers and principals to explain the following aspects, namely:
§ students’ achievement
§ students’ attitudes
§ students’ values
§ students’ self concept and aspirations
§ socio-economic status
§ grouping of students
Now reflect your past experiences. Can you recall of any interaction with any of the school members (peers, teachers, principals) in relation to your values, attitudes, achievement, etc.
Share with your colleagues in school.
As we have approached the end of our discussion on the three perspectives of sociology, let us now summarize them graphically. This will enable you to reflect and analyse the differences between them.
Let us summarize the three theories in a table form
- Closed Organization
- Culture and Cultural Capital
- Bureaucracy
- Institution
- Social interaction
- Family
- Ethnic groups
- Community
- Society
How many of these concepts are you familiar with and able to explain? Did you encounter any problems? If you are able to explain, then you it is a good attempt! Let us check how you have faired.
Have you ever heard the term sociology? Is sociology similar to psychology? Can you differentiate between the two terms? Let us consider these two situations:
Situation 1 - “My daughter Alice who is 10 months old is now able to walk. She is also able to ask for things that she wants”
Situation 2- “I do not like to go out and play with Ahmad. He never allows me to borrow his books but I like Jenny because she buys me candies whenever she goes to the shop”
Now can you see the difference between these two situations? Can you explain the difference? Can you now tell us which of the two situations do you think refers to the concept of sociology?
Sociology is a study of people in group situations. In other words, it is the study of society and social interactions, of how human beings as social beings think and act.
Other definitions of sociology are:
1. Sociology is the systematic and objective study of human society and social interaction.
2. a systemic study of the relationship between people and the social setting in which they live.
3. a study of social life, social change and social causes and consequences of human behaviour.
4. a study of what goes on between people, whether as individuals, groups, or entire society.
According to Ottoway ( 1964 ), sociology is defined as a separate discipline of social science, is the study of society, but not the whole of that society……where the central concern of sociological study is the social relationships of mankind.
Discipline of sociology enables us to look beyond our limited view of the world to society as a whole- the values and ideas shared by its members, the groups and the forces that change it.
Now that you have already understood the term sociology, try to explain what is meant by Sociology of Education? .
Let us now proceed to explain sociology of education. It is a discipline of applied social science that uses sociological knowledge in educational research. In other words, Sociology of Education is the knowledge of education from the social perspective. Since you have fully understood both the concepts of Sociology and Sociology of Education, let us move on!!!
a. Theories of Sociology of Education
In an effort to understand how society works, different sociologists start with different assumptions about the basic character of human social life. There are some who see order and stability as more important than conflict and change; while others take the opposite view. Some view the larger institutional structures of society while others focus on human interaction in small groups. Thus, sociologists have theoretical perspectives which will help them select the questions that they will ask about social life and the methods they use to seek answers to these questions.
Ponder over these few questions:
Why do things happen the way they are in society?
What determines the way we perceive an individual or groups?
What leads to conflict and competition among students?
What leads individuals to be attracted to others?
These are some of the questions that deal with interaction in social situations. How do we explain these kinds of social phenomenon. Sociologists apply theoretical approaches to acquire knowledge and explain social interactions and its implications in schools and classrooms.
Do you know that there are three types of theoretical approaches , namely
1. Functionalist Theory
2. Conflict Theory
3. Interactionist Theory
Now, visit your nearest library and find out more on these three theoretical approaches. What have you gathered on these approaches? Can you differentiate the three approaches? Read on and compare your readings with the information provided below. Now, let us read on to find out more about these three theories of sociology.
1.1.1 Functionalist Theory ( Emile Durkheim )
This theory is based on the assumption that a society is a complex system which works together to promote stability. It emphasizes the way in which each part of a society contributes to the whole so as to maintain stability.
According to this approach:
§ Society and institutions in society (such as education) are interdependent.
§ Society is much like the human body. Like parts of body, the parts of society work together in a systematic way that is usually good for the whole. Each part helps to maintain the state of balance that is needed forthe system to operate smoothly.
§ Society is represented by six major units/institutions namely, family, religion, education, politics, economics and health.
§ Every unit must work and contribute to the functioning of the whole society.
§ Every unit plays a role in the total system and are dependent on each other for survival.
Analogy :
Heart and brain are essential for human being to live. An education system is necessary for the survival of a society.
The important aspects of this theory are:
§ It consists of functions and structures – which contribute to the stability of society.
§ Integration – between all units and institutions in the society.
§ Maintain the stability in society.
§ Encourages changes to promote progress in society.
§ Importance of formal and non formal education in the socialization process of educating children; to uphold values and norms of the society (education as means of socialization ).
Now, please make jottings of what you understand by the Functionalist theory and what are the strengths and weaknesses in this theory.
As for the functionalist perspective, the school serves very similar functions and the five main social functions of education have been identified as (a) socialization, (b) social control, (c) selection and allocation, (d) assimilation of newcomers and (e) social innovation and change.
Socialization function of education is the transmission of knowledge and technical skills. School expected to teach children such values as democracy, the rule of the law and even the desirability of monogamous marriage. Normative socialization (teaching of norms and values) is also implicit in much that a child reads and is allowed to do.
Social control is where school expected to persuade their students that it is necessary to behave according to these principles. Students are graded not only on how well they learn but also on how well they cooperate, how orderly they are and also even on personal grooming. Social control functions of education extends well beyond socialization. School serves as custodial institutions for the nation’s young, keeping children off the streets.
Selection and allocation of people to enter particular occupational positions rests with the schools. Assimilation is the absorption of newcomers into the dominant society. Assimilation functions in schools is geared towards including the poor and disadvantaged in the main stream of society, whether or not they are recent immigrants.
Education contributes to change by spreading and producing new knowledge, values and beliefs. Besides new knowledge, education organization also produce and disseminated new values and beliefs that can be potent generators of social change.
You should be able to understand the sociological perspective on education based on the functionalist theory.
1.1.2 Conflict Theory (Max, Weber )
This theory is based on the assumption that society is a complex system characterized by inequality and conflicts that generate social change.
According to this theory, there are 3 important elements:
- conflict
- change
- force
The conflict theory emphasizes on the struggle over limited resources, power and prestige as a permanent aspect of societies and a major source of social change. Based on the assumption that the parts of sociology, far from being smoothly functioning units of a whole, actually are in conflict with one another. Among the characteristics of the theory:
§ Existence of tension and conflict in society and its parts created by the competing interest of individuals and groups.
§ Constant state of tension results in struggle that finally cause change in society.
§ Change is inevitable.
Existence of different social class in society results in constant conflict amongst the different social groups. Each tries to champion it’s own cause. The most powerful group will try to force it’s values on others. This conflict of interest will lead to changes in society.
Can you describe how this theory is applied in education?
According to this theory, the functions of education are :
§ Stratification tool for the capitalist society.
§ Social control.
School is a training ground for workers in terms of attitude, technical skills, intellectual abilities etc. So who do you think students are trained for the lower hierarchy job in the industrial sector?
According to this theory, students with low academic achievement are chosen for lower hierarchy jobs. These students normally are from the low income group (“the have-nots”).
Children from rich families (“the haves”) have access to many privileges (example: access to the best education) normally score high academic grades. They are the ones who secure the better jobs.
Conflict theorists see education principally as a tool by the ruling classes to perpetuate social inequality, both by controlling access to schooling and by training docile, disciplined workers.
Two important ways by which these goals are promoted are tracking and credentialism. Tracking is dividing students into different groups or classes on the basis of academic ability. Process of selection starts as soon as a child enters school. Purpose of tracking programs is to allow each student to learn at his or her own pace and thereby avoid boredom on the part of the first learners and frustration among the lower track students. Credentialism put forth by the conflict theorists contended that the more degrees granted , the less bearing they have on people’s ability to do a job.
Can you relate the idea of this theory in our present education system? Does our present education system serves as a means of stratification tool and social control?
Now that you have now understood the two different theoretical approaches to Sociology, let us compare and contrast them with the third theory. Make jottings as you read along.
What are the significant similarities and differences?
1.1.3 Interactionist Theory
This theory is based on the assumption that society is involved in interaction by which individuals actively construct reality in everyday life. The major characteristics of the theory are:
§ Focuses on how people interact in their everyday lives and how they make sense of this interaction.
§ Focuses on individuals’ interaction with one another.
§ Interactionist is concerned with the nature of daily interaction on the society and how this interaction is perceived by people
§ They study individuals and small groups rather than large scale social structures. They observe human behaviour at such close range, interactionists tend to see people as having more freedom of actions –more freedom from the constraints of society.
§ The important principles of this theory are:
- individual’s interaction ( through shared symbols & meanings ) enable him to think.
- individual’s action and interaction develop into groups and societies.
- every individual will influence the other.
§ Individuals with similar culture and background will define and interpret social situations in similar ways because of their similar socialization, experiences and expectations. Their behaviour is guided by common norms.
§ However, differences do exists due to individual experiences, social class and economic status
Consider this situation:
A teacher walking past a classroom may generate a positive feeling to some students and nervousness and anxiety in others. These reactions happen because we tend to respond to others according to the different labels we attach.
Now, let’s ponder for a while. How do Educational Sociologist explain the students’ achievement using this theory?
In education, this theory focuses on the common, ordinary interactions between members in a school such as among peer groups, teachers and students, teachers and principals to explain the following aspects, namely:
§ students’ achievement
§ students’ attitudes
§ students’ values
§ students’ self concept and aspirations
§ socio-economic status
§ grouping of students
Now reflect your past experiences. Can you recall of any interaction with any of the school members (peers, teachers, principals) in relation to your values, attitudes, achievement, etc.
Share with your colleagues in school.
As we have approached the end of our discussion on the three perspectives of sociology, let us now summarize them graphically. This will enable you to reflect and analyse the differences between them.
Let us summarize the three theories in a table form
The above table simplifies the differences between the three theoretical approaches. I hope you are clear about the differences between them. However, you must remember that no one theory is better than the other. Each has it’s strength and weaknesses. All three serve as an important guide to explain the patterns and behaviour of society.
There are many different concepts used in Sociology and Sociology of Education. I am sure you may have heard some of these concepts. Can you just name a few and explain them briefly? Can you write what you understand about the following concepts:
- Organization- Closed Organization
- Culture and Cultural Capital
- Bureaucracy
- Institution
- Social interaction
- Family
- Ethnic groups
- Community
- Society
How many of these concepts are you familiar with and able to explain? Did you encounter any problems? If you are able to explain, then you it is a good attempt! Let us check how you have faired.
1.3 Summary
• Sociology is the study of social relationship ( interaction ) of mankind.
• Sociology of Education is the knowledge of education from social perspectives.
• The three theoretical approaches to Sociology of Education are Functionalist theory, Conflict theory and Interaction theory.
• Functionalist theory – an education system as an integral, interrelated part of the whole societal system carrying out necessary functions for the survival of the society.
• Conflict theory – tensions exist in society because of conflicting interest amongst groups and as a result of this inequality promotes social changes.
• Interaction theory – involves interaction by which individuals actively construct reality in everyday life. Society is seen as subjective, highly variable and somewhat unpredictable
1.4 Basic Reading Text:
Popene, D. 2000. Sociology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM
Synopsis
This unit consists of five topics. First and foremost you will be given you an overall understanding of the basic concepts of Sociology and Sociology of Education and the pattern of interaction and behaviour will be discussed in the educational setting. The second topic will explore the school as a social system; looking into its conceptual aspects, the roles and personalities in running an organisation while the third topic will investigate some of the bureaucratic elements and practices in schools. Topic four on Management and Discipline will allow you to study the school climate, disciplinary issues concerning schools, conflicts and stress in the school. Lastly, in the fifth topic, we shall discuss the effects of collaboration between community and schools towards the development of students’ progress.
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. describe the various sociological concepts and terminologies.
2. explain the theories related to sociology of education.
3. describe the elements that form the school social system.
4. explain the conflict of goals and functions within the school.
5. describe the various elements that make up the school as a bureaucratic organisation.
6. explain the concepts of school climate, stress and conflict within the school organization.
This unit consists of five topics. First and foremost you will be given you an overall understanding of the basic concepts of Sociology and Sociology of Education and the pattern of interaction and behaviour will be discussed in the educational setting. The second topic will explore the school as a social system; looking into its conceptual aspects, the roles and personalities in running an organisation while the third topic will investigate some of the bureaucratic elements and practices in schools. Topic four on Management and Discipline will allow you to study the school climate, disciplinary issues concerning schools, conflicts and stress in the school. Lastly, in the fifth topic, we shall discuss the effects of collaboration between community and schools towards the development of students’ progress.
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. describe the various sociological concepts and terminologies.
2. explain the theories related to sociology of education.
3. describe the elements that form the school social system.
4. explain the conflict of goals and functions within the school.
5. describe the various elements that make up the school as a bureaucratic organisation.
6. explain the concepts of school climate, stress and conflict within the school organization.
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